In light of its repeated defeats and humiliations at the hands of imperial powers, the Qing Dynasty attempted to modernize its military, economy, and society through a series of reforms known as the “Self-Strengthening Movement.”
By the mid-1800s, the Joseon Kingdom had become an isolated polity which was famously hostile to unwelcome visitors. Nevertheless, imperial powers vied to force the nation to open to international trade, offer paths toward modernization, and jealously eyed the strategic and economic value of Korea’s many ports.
Throughout the 1840s, various groups sought to find solutions to repeated violations of sakoku and questioned the ability of the shogunate to practically defend the country if there was an actual invasion. Many came to very different conclusions.
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